15041611Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy1504-1611GAMUT - Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre (NORCE &
University of Bergen)10.15845/voices.v21i3.3144ResearchExploring a Music-based Intervention Entitled "Portrait Song" in School
Music TherapyStella Lerner's Song-based ApproachElkoshiRivkaelkoshi1@bezeqint.netLevinsky College of Education, Tel Aviv, IsraelViegaMichaelParsonsJoannaTurryAlan111202121319820203092021Copyright: 2021 The Author(s)2021This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.https://voices.no/index.php/voices/article/view/3144
Songwriting has gained footing as one of the main approaches in music therapy. Many
of the publications focus on various techniques whereby children and adults are
assisted, individually or in groups, to create songs collaboratively. This study
explored a non-collaborative song-based intervention entitled "Portrait Song";
namely, an original song composed by the therapist for and about specific recipients
as a therapeutic tool. The "Portrait Song" intervention was initiated and implemented
by Ms. Stella Lerner, an Israeli music therapist and composer. Two specific aims were
set for the study: (1) to explore the nature of the "Portrait Song" practice as a
means for school music therapy; and (2) to examine the effect of the "Portrait Song"
intervention on students' outcomes. The author/researcher acted as an outside
observer, evaluating the "Portrait Song" intervention and the students' experiences
in two schools in Israel, which provide music therapy programs for children
possessing a broad range of disorders. Data included field notes compiled during
class observations, extensive interviews with the therapist, and examination of
musical scores and written material. The study showed that the "Portrait Songs"
intervention guided participants to higher levels of social adjustment, refined
physical skills, and assisted with areas of self-identity and self-efficacy. Lerner's
innovative "Portrait Song" intervention can give music therapists some perspectives
about the possibility and benefits of composing complete therapeutic songs (lyrics
and music) for and about specific clients in school settings.
songwritingschool music therapysong compositionschool ethnographymusic-based interventionIntroduction
Songwriting has gained footing as one of the main approaches in music therapy.i Many of the publications cited above (endnote i) have focused on various
techniques whereby children and adults are assisted, individually or in groups, to
create songs collaboratively (e.g., Baker et al.,
2018; Edgerton, 1990; Nordoff & Robbins, 1962, 1968, 2007). This study explored a non-collaborative song-based intervention
entitled "Portrait Song." It is an original song composed by the therapist for and about
specific recipients as a therapeutic tool in school settings. Through ethnographic
methods (i.e., field observations and interviews), the author, who is not a music
therapist, aimed to study the way compositional song concepts are realized in music
therapy. It was the author's belief that the results of an ethnographic study may have
relevance for both music therapists and music educators.
The following review of the literature focuses on two relevant topics: (1) Songwriting
practices in music therapy; (2) Songwriting practices in school settings.
Songwriting Practices in Music Therapy
Former studies in the field of music therapy (e.g., Baker et al., 2018; Gfeller,
1987; Nordoff & Robbins,
2007; Plach, 1980), music sociology
and group therapy (e.g., Ansdell, 2014;
Jones, 2005; Wilson, 2013), psychotherapy (Dalton & Krout, 2005; Ficken, 1976; Silverman, 2011),
and music education (Derrington, 2005,,
2011; Kratus, 2016; Riley, 2012)
pointed toward the positive impact that songwriting had on participants' well-being,
communication, socialization, and processing of feelings. For example, songwriting
met clients' varying physical, emotional, and cognitive needs (Aigen, 2009; Baker et
al., 2018; Wilson, 2013); promoted
social interaction (Ficken, 1976; Gfeller, 1987; Nordoff & Robbins, 2007; Plach, 1980) and provided joy, happiness, and enjoyment (Jones, 2005; Silverman, 2011).
Songwriting procedures encompass various techniques whereby children and adults are
assisted, individually or in groups, to create songs collaboratively (Baker et al., 2009; Nordoff & Robbins, 2007; Aasgaard & Blichfeldt Ærø, 2016). Music therapists
typically helped clients in writing lyrics and composing music (Bruscia, 1996).
A variety of lyric-based methods were used in which a preconceived song functioned as
the structural framework to which individuals rewrote new lyrics. Through replacement
(substitution) of individualized narratives in pre-existing songs, participants were
given a chance to project personal situations, thoughts, feelings, and interests.
Lyric-based methods include parody, cloze procedure, word starters, word lists,
collage, and rapping. Music-based methods were also used, including blues song
structures (Goldstein, 1990; Schmidt, 1983); pastiche (Baker et al., 2008; Baker, 2015; Roberts, 2006), and
improvising and recording via software equipment (Dalton & Krout, 2017).
Music and Lyrics
Researchers examined the multi-faceted ways in which words and music interact in
improvised songs and instrumental music (e.g.,
Ansdell 1995; Baker et al.,
2009; Brown & Pavlicevic,
1997; Lee, 2003; Streeter, 1999; Turry, 2006). Some therapists/researchers based their
conclusions on an analysis of the lyric content mainly (e.g., Bailey, 1984). Others advocated an'absolutist' position, promoting the importance of musical analysis both
in clinical and research work (e.g., Ansdell
1995; Brown & Pavlicevic,
1997; Lee, 2003). Streeter
(1999) objected to the 'absolutist'
position proposing an integrated approach, and Turry (2006) likewise emphasized the fusion of words and music for
maximum therapeutic benefit:
The combination of words and music helps to integrate cognitive and affective
processes. (p. 38)
It is both the structure of the music and the drama enacted by the music and
words together that the listener responds to. (p. 67)
However, we recall that music consists not only of words and music but of multiple
semiotic systems. Music includes visual and gestural systems, in addition to words
and sounds. Inaudible and non-verbal communication affords information for the
music-centered therapist. The relative importance of any semiotic system
(verbal-audible-visual) can fluctuate according to changing therapeutic conditions
and needs while considering songs for therapy.
Songwriting of the Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy (NRMT)
Songs for individuals (children and adolescents) with special needs were improvised
and published by Paul Nordoff (1909–1977) and Clive Robbins (1927–2011) between
1959–1974 (Nordoff & Robbins, 1962,
1968). Nordoff, an American
composer/therapist, and Robbins, a special educator, developed the Nordoff-Robbins
Music Therapy (NRMT) approach. NRMT was described as "a novel music-centered approach
based on therapists’ creativity and sensitivity, which emphasized listening deeply to
clients’ nonverbal, verbal, and musical expressions, improvising aesthetically
powerful and clinically effective compositional musical forms" (Turry, 2014, p. 1). The NRMT repertoire of songs (and
instrumental pieces) functioned as a didactic and practical resource for music
therapy students, educators, and clinicians. It became a "model of musical form
fashioned with developmental challenges embedded within" (Ritholz, 2014, p. 9).
NRMT emphasized the clinical benefits inherent in the unfolding creative process of
songwriting among individuals with special needs. Nordoff and Robbins (2007) wrote about the emergence of
communication, social interaction, and coactivity. Turry (2014) attested:
Nordoff and Robbins harnessed the power of music to evoke new developments in
children, and the results were often astonishing. (p. 1)
The idea that improvising songs can have a direct and transformative effect is one
of the basic tenets of the Nordoff-Robbins approach to music therapy… moving the
child away from pathology and toward a new developmental level. (p. 346)
Nordoff-Robbins therapists/composers continued the NRMT songwriting legacy with
various client populations, including adults (e.g.,
Ansdell, 1995; Lee, 2003; Lee & Houde, 2011; Turry, 2014). Research studies emerged. Nordoff and Robbins
(2007) interrogated the detail of their
own cases through observational descriptions and microanalyses of audio and video
recordings (Ansdell, 2010), and
therapists/researchers explored the NRMT ontology and clinical effects through case
studies mostlyii (e.g., Aigen, 1997, 1998; Aldridge, 2005; Ansdell, 2010,
2014; Ritholz, 2014; Robarts, 2003;
Turry, 2006, 2009, 2010). NRMT
studies indicated therapeutic improvements and changes toward well-being (e.g., Aigen, 1998; Ritholz, 2014; Turry,
2006, 2009). For example, Aigen
(1998) demonstrated that rhythmical
music, employed with the conceptual foundations of NRMT, had benefits in cognition,
affect regulation and motor skills. Improvement in psychological processes was
manifested in Turry's (2009) work, as
improvised songs allowed the therapist "to guide and alter [the client's]
psychological process while offering a creative vehicle of expression" (p. 2).
Attempting to standardize NRMT while preserving "the core spirit of individual
creativity essential to clinical work" (Turry,
2014, p. 4) caused tension and ongoing debates among therapists.
Therapists/researchers prompted the importance of utilizing Nordoff-Robbins
compositions flexibly while responding to the emerging needs of clients that arise
spontaneously in sessions (e.g., Aigen,
1998; Ritholz, 2014). Nevertheless,
the Nordoff-Robbins view of songs remained central, and so did the notion that songs
created within music therapy experiences can meet therapeutic goals.
Compositional Teamwork
As noted above, researchers have found advantages in collaborative songwriting.
However, theorists presented problems compositional teamwork generated (Abra, 1994; Barrett, 2014; Gromko,
1996; Moran & John-Steiner,
2004). Abra (1994) considered
personal disparity, dominance struggles, controversy, and unreachable consensus
within compositional teamwork. Moran and John-Steiner (2004) witnessed problems of "impatience, ownership,
conflict, and unfriendliness" (p. 19) caused by collaborative composition. Gromko
(1996) found that questions during
side-by-side-with-researcher compositional work "often led participants to places
where they would otherwise not have gone" (p. 49). Barrett (2014) concluded that collaborative composition is fraught
with disagreements, tension, and contradiction.
However, these disadvantages in compositional teamwork were detected by
teachers/researchers rather than music therapists, at mainstream institutional
settings rather than clinical settings. In music therapy settings, conflicts could
be considered important and helpful in advancing children towards interpersonal
improvement. Aigen (1997), for example,
found that periods of conflict among clients and between clients and therapists
led to enhanced cohesiveness and individual growth among adolescents with
developmental delays. During a year-long process of group music therapy, the
participants developed an individualized repertoire of songs that reflected the
interpersonal process at each stage of development. This shows that the context of
research settings can significantly influence the extent and capacity of
children's self-expression and disclosure (Smith et al., 2005).
This research focuses on a songwriting practice implemented in specific
therapeutic school settings in Israel. Unlike the studies cited above, the
"Portrait Song" practice is declared non-collaborative. It is wholly created by
the therapist (lyrics and music) and taught by rote to target clients for
therapeutic purposes. Studying this technique in specific Israeli school settings
may contribute to a research area with scarce information.
Songwriting Practices in School Settings
Former studies showed that collaborative songwriting methods in school settings
empower the students' learning and well-being (Baker, 2015, 2016; Draves, 2008; Swanson, 2020). It was argued that songwriting connects directly with
schoolchildren's culture (Derrington, 2005,
2011; Draves, 2008; Kratus, 2016; Riley, 2012); provides an "outlet for
self-expression" (Edgerton 1990, p.19),
helps bereaved students gain insight into their grief (Dalton & Krout, 2017), and promotes self-knowledge,
self-confidence (Kratus, 2016), self-esteem
(Draves, 2008; Edgerton, 1990; Lindberg,
1995), and assertiveness (Lindberg,
1995).
Three lines of songwriting attitudes are discernable in the literature: the main
approach which involves music therapists facilitating clients' songwriting, lyrics,
and melodies; (Baker et al., 2008; Edgerton, 1990; Goldstein, 1990; O’Callaghan, 1996; Priestley,
1985; Schmidt, 1983); a second
approach involves music therapists setting to music the lyrics that their students
created (Jones, 2006; Lane, 1988); and a third approach, occupying a relatively small
place in the literature, that involves music therapists creating complete therapeutic
songs (lyrics and music) for their clients (Jones,
2006).
The "Portrait Song" procedure, which is the focus of this study, belongs to the third
line of songwriting attitudes, namely non-collaborative therapeutic songs created by
the music therapist for and about specific school recipients. The implementation of
Lerner's teacher‐centered songwriting approach in Israeli music therapy schools
provided an opportunity to research this particular approach. In general, music
therapy research in Israel is less developed than clinical work (Amir, 2001). As a music teacher/researcher, the
author wished to look into the therapeutic non-collaborative songwriting approach and
its implementation in Israeli school settings.
This ethnographic study examined for the first time the "Portrait Song" intervention
as a unique non-collaborative therapeutic songwriting approach implemented in Israeli
schools with children possessing a broad range of disorders. This study may
contribute to the increasing body of knowledge of songwriting practices in music
therapy.
Purpose
The general purpose was to explore the therapeutic "Portrait Song" intervention as
initiated and implemented by Ms. Stella Lerner, an Israeli music therapist and
composer, working in two Israeli schools for students possessing a broad range of
disorders. (More details about the music therapist and the research sites below.)
Two specific aims were set for the study:
To explore the nature of the "Portrait Song" approach as a means for music
therapy, and
To examine the effect of the "Portrait Song" intervention on students'
outcomes.
Two related research questions were asked:
What is the nature of the "Portrait Song" approach?
What is the impact of the "Portrait Song" intervention on schoolchildren with
special needs?
MethodType of Study
The study is a qualitative ethnographic case study (Gay et al., 2011; Stake,
2005). It is defined as school ethnography (Gay et al., p. 426) since it
explores the therapeutic songwriting intervention in school settings. The study is a
particularistic case study as it focuses on a bounded phenomenon (Stake, 2005), the non-collaborative "Portrait
Song," implemented in particular settings by a single individual.
Data Collection, Sources, and Techniques
For methodological triangulation in a qualitative study (Gay et al., 2011), the author used multiple data sources:
class observation, unstructured interviews, and examination of audio and written
sources.
Class Observations
The researcher grew interested in therapeutic aspects of songwriting implemented
in educational settings. Taking on the role of a passive observer, the researcher
focused on collecting data through extended fieldwork (Gay et al., 2011). Seven class observations, 50 minutes
each, and three school concerts about one hour each were observed over the course
of two school years (2018/2019, and 2019/2020). The researcher followed an ideal
expressed by Zaare (2012): "Observers are
not evaluators or intruders who come to assess how well a teacher teaches, but
peers who come to learn from classroom events" (p. 611). All field notes were
written on-site and compiled after leaving the settings.
Unstructured Interviews
Data collection relies on face-to-face informal interviews with the
therapist/composer to elicit information about her educational and therapeutic
perspectives, goals, and past experiences. Six interviews (of 90–120 minutes each)
were taped and later transcribed, coupled with phone calls and email
conversations.
Audio and Written Sources
Data included tape-recorded songs, videos of "Portrait Song" sessions, musical
scores, and written documents: schools' published material and the therapist
syllabuses, abstracts, and notes. This data was often used as a starting point for
subsequent class observations.
Data Analysis
The resulting analysis is a description of emergent themes, codes, and
thought-patterns (e.g., Allwright, 1988;
Gay et al., 2011; Zaare, 2012). Interpretations are grounded in the data through
the use of direct quotes from the therapist and class members.
The Music Therapist and her Therapeutic Position
Lerner is a trained music therapist. She achieved her Master’s in special education,
musicology, and linguistics from Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University in
Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), Russia, and a license to practice music therapy in
schools for special education from the Israeli Ministry of Education. As a composer,
her musical output includes songs (e.g., Stella Lerner: Poetic
Songs, 2016) and chamber music, published by the Israel Music Institution
and played on the radio in Israel and abroad. Since 1992 she has worked with Israeli
school children with physical, behavioral, mental, and emotional problems. Her
passion is helping children with special needs through "Portrait Songs," and she has
worked in this field since 1994. Lerner's therapeutic work is rooted mostly in the
principles of behavioral therapy. Her outspoken aim is to alter (or minimize)
undesirable (problematic) behaviors and reinforce healthy ones. The "Portrait Song"
program is the means for achieving these goals.
The Author
As a music teacher/researcher, trained and certified in the Orff and OMT (Orff Music
Therapy) approaches, the author's curiosity was twofold: to inspect the
non-collaborative songwriting phenomenon in her cultural surrounding and to learn
about its therapeutic effects.
The Research Sites
For diversity sampling, the "Portrait Song" intervention was observed in two Israeli schools.iii The following information about the schools is cited from the schools'
documents [Hebrew].
[School-A] has about 100 students. The school is for children with developmental,
mental, and motor disabilities, related complex disabilities, verbal,
communication, CP, autism spectrum disorder, sensory disabilities, and various
congenital syndromes.
[School-B] is a state elementary school. It has about 300 students. Students with
special needs, such as mental disorders, emotional disturbances, and cognitive
impairments, are either integrated into mainstream classes or learn separately in
small classes… Music therapy is provided for students with special needs.
(Translated by the author.)
Study Approvals and Ethics
This study received approval from a local Institutional Review Board in central
Israel. Ethical approval for this research was granted by the authorities of the
schools (school-A and school-B) to attend Lerner's "Portrait Song" classes. Lerner
had informed her students that the school has a policy that teachers can be observed
in the classroom, and receive feedback on their teaching. Photographs or videos were
not used during class observations. Pseudonyms are used in the report to ensure
children's confidentiality. Lerner obtained a consent note for the current
report.
Respondent Validation
Lerner read through the data and analyses and provided feedback on the author's
reflections and interpretations of her responses.
Data Examples
The following vignettes provide a glance into Lerner's "Portrait Song" intervention and
her pupils' experiences. Each vignette is followed by the author's interpretation of the
respective events. The songs were arranged for YouTube. Scores and YouTube links are
presented in Appendix I.iv The author translated the Hebrew lyrics for this report, attempting to be as
faithful as possible to the syllabic verses and the content of the songs.
Vignette 1: Rehearsing for a Concert
During the last week of school, the author attended a group rehearsal for an
end-of-the-year event. Lerner had explained the purpose of the concert a few days
earlier when she called to invite the author to the rehearsal: "The concert is a time
for the children to sing on stage! More of a new challenge for them; a time for the
audience, parents, and staff to acknowledge their achievements!" The rehearsal took
place at the School-B auditorium. It was a large venue with seating for about a
hundred and a large stage equipped with an electric keyboard. Lerner introduced her
pupils: Shirley, Regina, Natasha, Diana (girls), and Marius (boy), all sixth-graders,
who study in a special education class, and Barack (boy) from a mainstream-class who
joined the group. The children seemingly shy and reserved clustered near the stairs
leading to the stage, awaiting their turn to go on stage and sing together two of
Lerner's "Portrait Songs."
Reflections: End of the Year Event as a Termination Process
Music therapy authors stressed the importance of implementing a constructive
termination process in music therapy to accelerate clients' therapeutic growth
(Fortune, 1987; Hudgins, 2013; Wheeler
et al., 2005). As a termination event, the end-of-the-year concert was
important not only for presenting in public the children's achievements but
introducing a new educational challenge, singing on stage for the first time. Thus
the therapist turned the termination process into a constructive learning
experience, a learning step rather than a stop.
Vignette 2: "Rejoice" and "Friendship"
The children are on stage and Lerner at the keyboard. They perform the first song
"Rejoice," which according to Lerner, had been composed as a song of
optimism, joy, and well-being for children of any abilities. Starting
with an anacrusis on the V-I, the fast tempo (con moto), rhythmic/harmonic energy in
a major key (F), grounding tonic-dominant bass motif, and ascending melodic phrases,
should enhance happiness and joy, affirming the declaration: "We came to rejoice…it's
good to sing!" However, the children seem uncomfortable singing on stage. Lerner
wants them to express joy. She announces enthusiastically: "Rejoice is a happy song!
I want you to be happy, with a smile spanning all over town!" Lerner sings in
exultation: We came to rejoice, we came to chant / Smile happily; don't say
you can't." She then plays the short introduction in swing, and the choir
joins in with more confidence and an expression of joy. The second concert song
entitled "Friendship" follows. It is a lyrical legato song in slow tempo, oscillating
between a major key and the parallel minor (C-Am), with an overall descending
contour.
See Appendix I for the scores and Youtube links of "Rejoice" and "Friendship".
Reflections: A Stimulative Song and Teacher Modeling
Expressing joy through songs is a universal phenomenon from ancient biblical times,vup to the modern hospital and balcony songs,vi performed during the 2020 corona-virus pandemic (Clinch, 2020; Janglo
News, 2020). Researchers have noticed that "singing is a spiritual
practice—it offers the possibility of transforming energy—to have an experience of
your whole self" (Bepko & Kresten, 1993, p.
118). Joy is an experience that is emphasized by Nordoff and Robbins
(2007). They point out how important
this state is as a trigger for self-actualizing experiences that are
transformative for clients (Turry,
1998).
Two songs of contrasting temporal patterning––the fast "Rejoice"and the slower "Friendship"––had a different effect on the children's
body language. The simulative "Rejoice" made children more alert, while the slower
"Friendship" relaxed their singing, making them look rather soothed. It has been
confirmed that singers and listeners experience optimistic and melancholic moods
with stimulative and sedative musical stimuli, respectively (e.g., Biller et al., 1974; Smith & Morris, 1976). "Temporal patterning seems to
have, through either development or evolution, the capacity to evoke a variety of
experiential states" (Bharucha et al., 2006,
p. 143).
By showing intense enthusiasm while demonstrating the way "Rejoice" should be
performed, Lerner practices teacher modeling. Her demonstration was coupled with
verbalization about the song's lyrics (a cognitive element) to make the musical
interpretation clear and learnable. Through modeling and verbalization, the music
therapist enabled transitions in both demeanor and musical expression, from alert
expression to apparently rejoicing in "Rejoice." Influential music educatorsvii and psychologistsviii have long advocated teacher modeling as a powerful research-based tool to
enhance music education (Dickey, 1992),
particularly with performing ensembles (Haston,
2007). It is endorsed that a good public performance is not only the
performers' chance to be esteemed but can lead to positive feelings of competence
and self-efficacy in the long run.
Vignette 3: <italic>"What Do You Think?"</italic>
The rehearsal is over. Children get off the stage. Lerner moves chairs to a circle
and instigates a conversation. She non-specifically asks: "What do you
think?" While sitting in the back, trying to be as unobtrusive as
possible, I jotted down the children's exchanging comments.
Shirley said: "The 'Friendship' song gives me a good feeling. We want to be
someone's good friend. I have a real friend from childhood. We were born in the
same hospital. We were in the same kindergarten, and now we're in the same
school."
Marius comments: "The 'Friendship' song is fun! It's fun! I dream about having
friends. I like playing Knights with my friends. I have a friend his name is Roy.
I have another friend and he is here –– Barack. He is a smart boy."
Regina said sadly: "This song ['Friendship'] speaks of something that you don't
have, and you want to have it. As if you want to play with friends but they don't
agree."
Diana: "There is a girl who doesn't want to be my friend. The song ['Friendship']
makes me sad."
Barack: "The song 'Friendship' is weak.ix You can't dance to it! I like rhythmic music because it's faster. 'Rejoice'
is rhythmic. One hears the rap in it. I like to dance to it."
Diana: "The happy song sounds better."
Natasha: "I like it when Stella plays fast, but I don't like slow music. I like
the happy song better. There are parts that I like to sing."
Regina: "In the gym, we exercise fast. When the music is slow I simply turn it
off. Dogs are sportive and fast. I dream of having a dog."
Reflections: Social Functioning
While the singing session was under Lerner's control, the verbal session that
followed was conducted without specific guidance, a condition that sparked
interactions and new relational possibilities. Bailey (1984) asserted that songs have the potential to establish
human contact and provide a framework for enhanced communication, "as singers and
listeners alike can relate to the self-expressive qualities of songs" (p. 7).
There was no consensus about the aesthetic-musical value of each of the concert
songs. "Music is often supposed to affect judgment and evaluation… no two children
have the same opinion and taste" (Scherer &
Zentner, 2001, p. 373). Children in group therapy "benefit from learning
to both compete and compromise, to fight and settle fights, and to bargain and to
compromise" (Grundblatt, 2016, p. 25).
While discussing the song "Friendship," children related to its verbal content.
The lyrics of the song evoked contrasting affective and emotional outcomes:
"emotional involvement is inevitably part of any musical interaction" (Rolvsjord, 2005, p. 98). For some children,
the song was "fun!" (Marius) and evoked "a good feeling" (Shirley); for others, it
caused "sadness" (Regina) or seemed "weak" because "you can't dance to it"
(Barack). The different emotions that were elicited by the song "Friendship" stem
from different personalized connections to its verbal content. The song became a
means "to transcend everyday reality and contact the transpersonal spiritual
dimensions of life" (Austin, 1999, p.
143). The children discussed the way friendship as a concept is relevant to
their personalized social life and expressed their feeling about having (or not
having) friends. Some children identified joy through the song as the verbal
message met fulfilled social experiences in their lives: "I have
a real friend" (Shirley); "I like playing Knights with my friends" (Marius). Other
children identified sadness when the verbal message met
unfulfilled social functioning: "the song speaks of something
that you don't have" (Regina), and "there is a girl who doesn't want to be my
friend." Thus discussing "Friendship" became a personalized, emotion-eliciting
event, "a direct way to contact and express intense feelings" (Austin, 1999, p. 143). Bailey (1984) stated that "personalized connections
to songs are important to the development of the therapeutic process" (p. 11). "It
is in the responding to others that a person communicates his or her individuality
and by so doing shapes and develops his or her self" (Robbins, 1991, p. 57). NRTM therapists affirm that songs
offer an opportunity to understand the linkages of musical processes with
psychological processes (e.g., Turry,
2009).
When referring to the song "Rejoice," children related to the rhythmic aspects of
the song rather than the verbal content. While translating rhythmic aspects into
physical/corporeal movement, they unanimously preferred fast over slow tempo and
the song "Rejoice" over the song "Friendship": "Rejoice is rhythmic… I like to
dance to this song" (Barack); "in the gym, we exercise fast" (Regina). "Inner
Motion" is a core experience of music (Repp,
1993), while "movement and dance are natural human responses to music,
particularly rhythmic music" (Crowe, 2004, p.
17).
Vignette 5: "I Wish I Had a Dog"
Lerner said to Regina: "If you want to have a sportive dog, we can make your dream
come true through a new song." Lerner started to improvise:
I wish I had a dog;Together we can jog,A dog so cute and good,I'd buy him toys and food.
Regina continued without delay:
And if it wants to poop,We'll walk out as a group.
Figure 1 and 2 presents the author's transcription of Stella's and Regina's
improvisations.
Stella's improvisations
Regina's improvisations
Reflections: Children's Improvisation
Lerner, as an able improviser, grasped Regina's dream and started a new "Portrait
Song." Her musical ideas were spontaneous and professional. Such acute, active
listening was exactly what Nordoff and Robbins brought to music therapy, the
"Creative Now" that Robbins discussed (Ansdell,
2010, p. 283). Although Lerner asked for no involvement in her
improvisation, Regina's involvement occurred spontaneously as a self-initiated
activity. Regina echoes the minor-third melodic motif and the syncopated pop
rhythms, thus turning a declared non-collaborative songwriting approach into a
collaborative activity. Regina's "Poop-Pop" improvisation demonstrates
collaboration through modeling, as Zimmerman and Ghozeil (1974) suggested: "The child's responses will be altered as
a result of his observation of the model's performance" (p. 440). Baker (2015) assumed that with the support of a
therapist, by illustrating improvisation, and by other methods (like FITB and
parody) "strategic songwriting can function as a preparation for original
songwriting" (p. 108).
Vignette 6: Regina's Dog Was Lost…
About a year later, during an interview, Lerner was asked if Regina's "Dog
Song" had been pursued. Lerner had no recollection of the "Dog
Song" improvisations. Lerner was asked if children were ever encouraged
to participate in the songwriting process. The answer was negative and metaphorical:
"I do not let children compose my songs in the same way that painters do not let
their models draw for them. A 'Portrait Song' reflects my vision
about the child."
Reflections: The Observer's Insights
Although Lerner's/Regina's "Dog Song" was forgotten and never
completed, it revealed the potential of spontaneous collaborative songwriting.
Observational studies (e.g., Allright,
1988; Gebhard, 1999) give the
observer insights that are sometimes not observed by the music teacher/therapist
when he or she is actively engaging in work.
Vignette 7: The Origins of the Songs "Rejoice" and "Friendship"
During another interview, Lerner was asked about the recipients of the concert songs
"Rejoice" and "Friendship". She replied: "'Rejoice' was not composed for a particular
recipient. It's a collective song for everyone; an uplifting song to invoke happy
feelings and optimism. However, the song 'Friendship' is a 'Portrait song'. I
composed it for Roy, an autistic boy, a second-grader at the time, who ten years ago
studied in my class with six other autistic boys. Roy had social problems. He was
aggressively courting his classmate David but to no avail, David remained subdued and
stiff. In that class, no friendship relations were formed. Roy was angry and
frustrated. He would bully children, drop to the floor, and make endless efforts to
draw David's attention. He talked constantly, refused to obey instructions, and often
ran out of class to hide in the schoolyard in a cardboard box there. He used to say
that the world is against him. The song 'Friendship' aimed to teach Roy and David the
essence of positive relations. Roy and David learned the song together. Through this
activity, they transformed and a certain rapport was formed between them."
Reflections: Types of "Portrait Songs"
Lerner's song production is of two types: "Community Songs," such as "Rejoice,"
which convey messages of hope and optimism "for everyone"; and "Personal Songs,"
such as "Friendship," for specific recipients to meet their individual needs. In
fact, "Community Songs" of hope and optimism are common throughout history. "Hope"
("Hatikva"), the Israeli Anthem, is one example: "Our hope is not yet
lost; the hope that is two-thousand years old; to be a free nation."
Songs that invoke hope have many psychological benefits for human well-being,
including health and cognitive outcomes (Fredrickson, 2001). The individualized "Portrait Song" type is a
purposeful song, composed for specific recipients to teach, heal and improve their
conditions. Still, there is the intention for individualized "Portrait Songs" to
become "Community Songs," through choir singing, concert performance, and
recordings. Thus over time, the song "Friendship," which had been composed for Roy
and David, became a community song for the concert choir (Vignette 1) and other
singers and listeners. Lane (1988)
suggested that patients' songs can be used to support other patients who identify
with the lyrics.
"Through this activity, they transformed," said Lerner, showing confidence in the
power of "Friendship" to bring about behavioral transformation in Roy and David.
However, it is not always easy to distinguish between enabling patterns of
behavior and transforming them. 'Enabling' can be described as a situation where
the music therapist helps the client through a song, but it
cannot mean transforming, solving, or making autistic behaviors
go away.
Vignette 8: "Dreaming of a Jungle"
During interviews, Lerner displayed scores and lyrics of individualized "Portrait
Songs." Three songs, "Dreaming of a Jungle," "Dressing" and "Comet" that she
considered most significant are presented below (Vignettes 8–10).
Lerner displayed another song for Roy, "Dreaming of a Jungle."She said: "Roy told me once: 'I feel like a boy growing up in
an urban jungle. I dream of living in the jungle without
restrictions.' These words were a source of inspiration for a Ballade,
which reflects my empathy for Roy's intelligent and heroic soul. Roy continued:
'When Baloo played with Mowgli.' I understood his meaning
right away and used his words for the beginning of the song. Roy, who was always
neglected and in the brink, got to be the center of my attention. When I first
presented the song he was interested in the lyrics. He liked singing the song. It
helped him become more cooperative. He stopped running out of class. He never ran
out during my sessions. Colleagues asked me: 'What is your secret with Roy?' I
replied: 'Songwriting! It works!' I see into the child during my sessions, and as
an artist, I mirror their situation for them. Through this process, the child is
'born anew,' gets an identity, like a documented ID card. He transforms and
grows."
See Appendix I for the score and Youtube link of "Dreaming of the Jungle."
Reflections: Children's Verbal Sharing and the Use of Metaphor
Based on "The Jungle Book" (1894), the work of the English novelist Rudyard
Kipling (1865–1936), the song "Dreaming of a Jungle" reflects Roy's fantasy; his
solidarity with Mowgli's character, the free human-cub raised in the jungle. Roy's
metaphor and Lerner's symbolic language convey Roy's situation unobtrusively
through a non-threatening "Ballade" that "mirrors Roy's situation." The employment
of Roy's words "When Baloo played with Mowgli" at the beginning of the song
demonstrates once again (as in Vignette 5) the thin borderline between declared
non-collaborative songwriting and children's involvement through self-initiated
verbal sharing.
Lerner gave voice to Roy, a child who had been "historically silenced or
marginalized" (Brantlinger et al., 2005, p.
199). She expressed great attention, appreciation, and acceptance for
Roy as a "wonder child" (in the lyrics) who had never been in focus as now when a
second song was composed for him and about him; a through-composed song in
A-minor, with piano harmonies modulating chromatically in broken chords,
reflecting a dream: "a kid…that always dreams … " When Roy encountered the song
for the first time he firstly focused on the lyrics. According to Baker et al.,
(2009), it is the lyrics that the
clients will listen to and relate to, therefore in songwriting, the focus should
always first be on the lyrics.
Roy benefited greatly by his second "Portrait Song". He became "more cooperative"
and never ran out during Lerner's lessons. The importance and efficacy of
song-based work to promote personal growth is well-supported in music therapy
literature (e.g., Aigen, 1997, 1998; Baker et al., 2008; Edgerton,
1990; Lindberg, 1995; Nordoff & Robbins, 2007; O’Callaghan, 1996; Ritholz, 2014; Silverman,
2011; Turry, 2014).
Vignette 9: "Dressing"
Lerner presented a video of a recorded lesson with Jeff learning to sing the song
"Dressing." As Lerner explained, the song aimed to improve Jeff's gross sensory-motor
functions. While singing and acting out dressing-a-shirt movements, Jeff moves
gradually from slow to more active dressing movements. Lerner tells about Jeff, the
song recipient:
Jeff is a child with severe dyspraxia. He failed to perform concrete actions and
daily activities. He moved clumsily and was greatly afraid of physical failure.
Getting dressed was especially hard for him. I told him: 'In music everything is
possible.' As an action song, "Dressing" begins with a dreamy motionless
introduction in the minor key, and then, when the action of dressing starts, the
tempo accelerates and the key changes to major. The song ends triumphantly
"A shirt on my skin, and I am within!" Unexpected harmonies
intend to stimulate Jeff's physical activity.
See Appendix I for the score and Youtube link of "Dreaming of the Jungle" and
"Dressing.''
Reflections: Psychomotor Training
By singing the song "Dressing" and acting out the movements, Lerner was guiding
Jeff to a higher state of physical functioning, wishing to maximize his
sensory-motor independence, and reduce frustration and fear of physical failure.
The lyrics and the music––a swaying 6/8 meter, harmonic transitions (major-minor),
and a gradual tempo change (accelerando)––coaxed Jeff's participation and
coactivity. The music binds the words and actions into a complete experience
through the binary form (introduction-action). By singing and acting, Jeff moved
gradually from slow to more active sensory-motor functions and thereby could
overcome physical and mental restrictions. Researchers confirmed that motor and
mental coordination can be improved through musical experiences (Aigen, 2009; Hatampour et al., 2011; Stephensen & Baker, 2011; Turry, 2014). Turry (2014) stated: "Improvised songs can establish a particular quality and
then by shifts in elements such as tempo and dynamics change the energetic
experience for the client" (p. 359). Aigen (2009) examined the relationship between tonal motion and physical
motion in NRMT improvisations and songs. He showed how compositional decisions
related to the tasks of clients in achieving physical motion. Jeff's documented
lesson shows how a student manages to cope with physical (and mental) restrictions
through a songwriting music therapy intervention.
Vignette 10: "The Comet Song"
The author attends a concert in School-B initiated by Lerner. The program consists of
14 "Portrait Songs" performed either by individuals or groups. Rachel, a third-grader
autistic child, refuses to go on stage when her turn comes to sing a song entitled
"The Comet Song." Lerner starts singing instead of Rachel in synchronization with a
pre-recorded soundtrack of the piano accompaniment. As Lerner reaches the refrain,
Rachel appears on stage and continues the song. She knows the song well, with the
lyrics fully memorized, and she sings in tune. During a subsequent interview, Lerner
tells the history of the song:
“The Comet Song" was composed for Rachel, an autistic child, when she was in
first-grade. Rachel was constantly on the floor rolling like a cat or walking
around while flapping her hands and spinning in circles. She had a shrill voice
when she spoke. She preferred to be alone the majority of the time. But looking
into Rachel's eyes revealed a spark. The song describes Rachel as a star that can
be watched but not reached. To imitate Rachel's movements, the rhythm is rolling
in dotted notes. Non-diatonic Neapolitan chords represent the distance and
alienation of the star-Rachel. She learned the song quickly and sang accurately.
See Appendix I for the score and Youtube link of "The Comet Song."
Reflections: The Conjunction of Words and Music
"The Comet Song" is a song in which both the lyrics and the music (vocal and piano
parts) function together to portray Rachel's behavior and personality as observed
by the therapist. Throughout the song, Rachel is compared to a (musical) star that
can be watched but not reached. The star metaphor not only adds poetic interest
but precludes from direct reference to social disconnect. Rather than directing
desirable class behaviors, the music copies the tempo and rhythms of Rachel's
"rolling-like-a-cat movements via a dotted-note melody in 12/8 meter and
persistent triplets "rolling" in the piano accompaniment.
Singing in Public–Fight-or-Flight
Music Performance Anxiety (MPA) is a leading severe medical problem common to
many singers (Studer et al., 2011).
The author assumes that Rachel refused to come on stage because she experienced
high levels of MPA. She preferred flight rather than fight. By beginning to
sing in Rachel's place, Lerner practiced a modeling-based strategy. Thereupon
Rachel ended the "Comet" performance on a positive note.
Rachel's Singing Success
Researchers theorized the requisite processes involved in singing success
(e.g., Joyner, 1969; Welch, 1986). Joyner (1969) outlined three requisites: pitch
discrimination, recalling melodic lines, and having a vocal instrument capable
of reproducing melodies. By these criteria, Rachel's singing was a success. She
sang in tune, with no shrill-sounding voice, showing a facility for rote memory
of melodic lines (and lyrics as well). Additionally, she sang in
synchronization with a soundtrack. Thus she manifested an inherent capability
of active listening to recorded harmonies. Turry (2014) considered music therapy a means to communicate and
relate to children with autism. Studies consistently show the special interest
and ability of those with autism to participate successfully in musical
activities (e.g., Hardley et al.,
2001).
Findings
The findings are presented in two sections: (1) concepts related to the nature of
Lerner's "Portrait Song" intervention; and (2) the impact of the "Portrait Song"
intervention on Lerner's pupils.
The Nature of Lerner's "Portrait Song" Intervention Types of "Portrait Songs"
"Portrait Songs" are of several particular types: (1) "Community Songs," which
instill a general sense of optimism and hope ("Rejoice"); (2) "Social Songs,"
which are tailored for specific recipients with targeted social goals
("Friendship"); (3) "Metaphoric Songs," which mirror a child's situation in a
metaphoric, non-threatening, unobtrusive way ("Dreaming of a Jungle" and "The
Comet Song"); and (4) "Action Songs," which push children beyond physical
restrictions through acting out instructions. Individuals are influenced by the
"Portrait Songs" beyond the individualized sessions since all types of "Portrait
Songs" turn into "Community Songs" via group teaching, choir singing, public
concerts, and recordings.
The Therapist Role in the Songwriting Process
Lerner's skills as a composer entail unique professional musicianship and years of
compositional experience in and beyond the field of music therapy. She is both the
lyricist and composer of her "Portrait Songs." She emphasizes a non-collaborative
approach: "I do not let children compose my songs" (Vignette 6). Nevertheless,
children demonstrate a natural impulse to improvise and self-initiated
collaborative songwriting (Vignettes 5, 8).
The Verbal Content of the "Portrait Songs": Making Audible Students
Voices
Children's authentic verbatim is often voiced in the lyrics. The compositional
process begins with writing the lyrics, characteristically conveying targeted
therapeutic contents, such as optimism, friendship, physical challenges, and other
empathic messages with a sense of purpose. By using metaphors and poetic language,
messages are often conveyed artistically and unobtrusively (Vignettes 8, 10).
The Musical Content of the "Portrait Songs"
Lerner's "Portrait Songs" are in the form of a Romantic period (19th Century)
lied. Like a lied, a "Portrait Song" consists
of two semiotic systems: music (voice and piano accompaniment) and language. This
genre is paramount for Lerner. She declares: "For me, a lied is a
natural mode of musical expression, an intuitive language. As a composer, I strive
to reach the highest possible aesthetic level." The songs are professionally
notated. The structure is usually strophic. Melodies are mostly kept within a 5-6
note-range so that children can sing them. The piano accompaniment is frequently
based on broken chord figurations, tonal modulations, and chromatic progressions.
The music never lacks a tonal center or key. In setting lyrics to music, verbal
meanings are supported by various levels of the music, such as tempo, meter,
rhythm, key, harmony, melodic flow, dynamics, articulation, expression and musical
structure. Different tempi, rhythms, melodic contours, and harmonic progressions
convey a whole gamut of emotions, such as hope, jubilation, joy, sadness,
yearning, frustration, and desire.
Interrelations between Teaching, Composition, and Music Therapy
Music teaching, composing and therapy are intertwined and progress as in a "spiral
scheme": the encounter with students is a source of inspiration for writing songs,
songs become a pedagogical tool for music teaching and therapy, which creates a
new source for writing a new song, and so on (Vignettes 7-8). Group lessons focus
on promoting fundamental music-making skills through modeling and illustration
(Vignettes 1, 5). Recipients (and peers) learn to sing the songs by ear being
accompanied by the music therapist on the keyboard.
The Impact of the "Portrait Song" Intervention on Lerner's pupils
Lerner's "Portrait Songs" were a powerful pedagogical and therapeutic tool. "Portrait
Songs" guided children to a mental attitude of optimism, hope, and confidence
(Vignettes 1, 8-10), and to higher levels of social adjustment and interaction
(Vignettes 2, 7). Motion songs refined physical skills and strengthened coordination
and motor functions (Vignette 9). Songs assisted with areas of self-identity and
self-efficacy (Vignettes 8-10). Withdrawn children benefited from the songs by
receiving much attention, acceptance, and love (Vignettes 8, 10). The longitudinal
"spiral scheme" process (teaching-composing-therapy) created a special bond between
the composer-teacher-therapist and her pupils-recipients (Vignettes 8-10). Feedback
sessions provided a framework for contact and communication, which allowed children
to express their preference and taste and relate to relevant issues in their lives
(Vignettes 3).
Discussion and Implications Creating "Portrait Songs" for Clients
Lerner's innovative "Portrait Song" intervention in Israeli special education can
give music therapists some perspectives about the possibility and benefits of
composing complete therapeutic songs (lyrics and music) for specific clients. Clients
who are unwilling and/or unable to co-operate in collaborative songwriting under the
guidance of the therapist can benefit from "Portrait Songs" created by the therapist
for them.
In addition to the practice of prompting clients to write lyrics and compose music
(e.g., Baker et al., 2008; Lindberg, 1995; Silverman, 2011), therapists can write "Portrait songs" which
convey resolutions for specific issues, including the issue of non-cooperation in
collaborative songwriting. "Portrait Songs" might motivate those clients to work
through and expediently resolve issues. "Motion Portrait Songs" composed by the
therapist can become a valuable medium through which disabled patients might gain
physical support. Through their compositions, therapists can provide clients with
clear examples of self-invented songs which might encourage collaborative
songwriting. As reviewed above, numerous rewards of engaging in songwriting
activities were documented in the literature. A flexible combination of
non-collaborative and collaborative songwriting strategies can provide a
comprehensive approach of receptive-creative song-based music therapy. The clients'
reflections on therapists' "Portrait Songs" can provide an avenue for communication
and interaction. Participants might gain pleasure through singing both "Portrait
Songs" and collaborative therapeutic songs individually and/or in groups. Public
concerts and recordings of "Portrait Songs" and other collaborative therapeutic songs
can prompt social acceptance and appreciation. They can also elicit a sense of pride,
self-esteem, and accomplishment in clients.
Afterthought
Creating songs for therapy (including "Portrait Songs") is embedded in social
interactions and human relations. The "Portrait Song" is actually participatory by
nature since it is created and guided by social factors. Instead of the seeming
dichotomy between collaborative and non-collaborative processes, we might consider
songwriting as moving along a continuum ranging between personal and communal
creative achievements while motivated by a common target toward the clients' support
and well-being.
Limitations of the Study
The researcher's goal was to collect data in a way that imposed a minimal amount of
personal bias. However, in creating the ethnographic account, one cannot escape the
potential bias (and mistakes) in translating the verbatim and song lyrics.
Interviews with family members, caregivers, and other stakeholders were not conducted
in this study. Such information and revisiting of the participants' perspectives,
later on, would add robust to further study about the effectiveness of the "Portrait
Song" intervention.
The implementation of the "Portrait Song" intervention in music therapy requires
careful consideration. Therapists like "teachers are different personalities" (Zaare, 2012, p. 607). Some are composers by
nature; others are more inclined to use pre-composed material. The "Portrait Song"
implementation in music therapy is understandably unsystematic, drawing on the
therapist’s compositional experience and preferences. Furtherobservational studies can provide insights about song-based therapeutic work
by examining the possibility of combining collaborative and non-collaborative
songwriting attitudes.
Acknowledgments
I express my gratitude to Prof. Judith Cohen and the music therapist Shmuel Ben-Dov
(Spitzer) for their remarks. Special thanks to the two anonymous reviewers for their
important comments and suggestions.
About the Author
Rivka Elkoshi is a pianist, senior lecturer of music at Levinsky College in Tel-Aviv,
Israel and supervisor of doctoral dissertations at Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan,
Israel. She has taught music at undergraduate and postgraduate levels and conducted
workshops for music educators on behalf of the Education Ministry in Israel. Her
specialty is research on music perception and musical literacy, piano pedagogy and the
Orff method. She is a recipient of an Institutional Fellowship for her research on
children’s musical perception. She has served as manager at the Israeli Musicology
Society and presented internationally in a number of different countries. Her
publications include piano compositions, several books on piano and Orff pedagogy, and
book chapters and articles on music perception and musical literacy in international
British and American journals.
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We came to rejoice, we came to chantSmile happily; don't say you can'tIf you stop we'll wake you upBecause it's good to sing and rap.Me and you, we'll sing till noonDon't worry if we're out of tune,Sing along no fear, no stressOh! Yes, yes…Never fight to be the firstEveryone has lots of spaceSing along no fear, no stressOh! Yes, yes…We're here to learn; be brightGain some knowledge, view, and sightWith desire and resolveYou and me,Will be renewed, you'll see."Friendship"
We're alike; yes, we are friends,When we row we make amends.It's so good to be together,It's so good to sing together.If we could have lived together,What a happy tie; a tether!Let us sing a friendship song,Everyone can sing along,We are singing well together,We can be a team forever.We're alike; yes, we are friends,When we row we make amends.We are friends!"Dreaming of a jungle"
When Baloo played with Mowgli,And Bagheera kept him safe,They knew he was a wonder,A boy growing up in the woods.He was as strong as the wolves,Like Bagheera running and alsoHe was smart as a kid,A boy who grew up in the city.A boy in the woodsA kid in town,The town is a human village,A weird and cruel placeWhen Baloo played with Mowgli,Baloo truly loved himHe wished to let him freeHe wished to hug him like a big bear,A good bearA kid in a very sad city,He cries: "Baloo!"He always dreams of jungleBut stayed in his townA wonder kid … "Dressing"
A good-looking shirtI'm wearing it today.In yellow and grayThe collar is grandWide sleeve for my handFeel happy and bright!My left hand and rightA shirt on my skinAnd I am within! "The Comet Song"