The Effects of Music Listening with Play on Preference, Recognition of the Main Melody and Musical Creativity in Elementary School Students
By Eunyoung Hwang
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a classical music listening program, namely music listening with plays, for elementary grade one students on music preference, recognition of the main melody, and musical creativity. The classical music listening program organized for this study employed various musical experiences such as singing, playing, composing and moving. The participants of this study were 61 elementary grade one students from Kyong-gi Province, Korea, who attended the classical music listening program after school. The students were divided into the two groups, experimental and control, which consisted of 31 and 30 students respectively. The experimental group participated in a music listening program with plays for 12 sessions, while the control group participated in a passive music listening program for 12 sessions. The results revealed a significant difference between the two groups in terms of preference and recognition of the main melody. Further, there was a significant difference in their musical creativity.
Introduction
Music is pervasive in human cultures. Based on the best anthropological knowledge, all human cultures had some form of music (Merriam, 1964). The specific forms that constitute 'music' are as varied as the cultures of the world. These all have one thing in common - they involve the organization of sound and silence for the purpose of human expression (Hughes, 1948). To date, it is thought that music is a uniquely and exclusively human behavior and a defining element of culture linked with therapy and healing.
Most people have some relationship with music. For example music is chosen for entertainment at a party or selected as a stress reducer. Similarly, music is an important part of our social and culture. For this reason, music therapists have used diverse genres of music, such as classicalal music, new age, jazz and popular music for special therapeutic purpose, such as relaxation, anxiety reduction, counteracting depression (Standley, 1986; Strauser, 1997), arousal of emotions (Gfeller, 2002), and enjoyment (Wigram & Weekes, 1985).
Music therapists have also tried to explore in greater depth the diversity of clients' behaviors with regard to genres of music. Since music therapists aspire to selecting music that will maximize client responses, they consider age, preference, familiarity, purpose, and extramusical associations with music (Pelletier, 2004) when adopting music. Among the various genres of music, classicalal music is often used for relaxation and imagination by music therapists for various therapeutic purposes, because it is multi-layered, written in various forms, conveys mood, and stimulates the imagination (Grocke & Wigram, 2007).
In addition, classicalal music connects with inner experience and enriches the aesthetic experience of listeners by allowing them to more fully appreciate their environment (Summer, 1990). Because of these advantages, classicalal music is used not only in music therapy, but also in music education and western classical music is a major part of curriculum at elementary schools in Korea. Students have to study western classical music, including history, composers, musical structures and forms.
Music therapy was established in the 1990s in Korea, and many therapists have been working with people who have disabilities. This clientele has now expanded in Korea to include people without disabilities (Park & Hwang, 2008) and music therapists are more often working in after school programs at elementary schools. In this context they must consider the use of western classicalal music for education as well as for therapy.
There are considered to be many advantages of listening to western classicalal music within elementary schools. First, listening to classicalal music can augment musical intelligence. Many theorists postulate that intelligence is comprised of a range of factors. These theories have been combined by Howard Gardner in his proposal of a theory of intelligence he called "multiple intelligences". Gardner (2006) defines intelligences as a set of skills for problem solving that entail the potential for finding or creating solutions to problems. He initially theorized seven "intelligences" and has now expanded this to nine. These include verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, naturalistic, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and spiritual-existential intelligence. Among these, musical intelligence is seen to be important to development in the initial stage of human life. Thus, the earlier music education is initiated, the greater are the improvements in musical intelligence.
Second, western classicalal music listening is thought to purify emotions and feelings. A large number of people have testified that they are more relaxed and emotionally stable when listening to classicalal music. Thus, classicalal music is hypothesized to facilitate students' emotional stability (Kim, 2000a; Jung, 2006b) and increase their concentration when studying.
Third, since western classical music is composed of structural factors, it is thought to provide an impetus for logical and analytical thinking (Richardson, 2000). It was thought that rhythm stimulates the left hemisphere of the brain, and melody stimulates the right hemisphere of the brain (Campbell, 1992; Levy, 1985). But it is important to remember that lateralization, the dominance of one hemisphere over the other, indicates that each side of the brain manages certain activities, but dominance does not mean absolute control of a particular function (Jourdain, 1997). Moreover, this genre of music enables students to think systematically. Classical music, which is different from popular music, consists of themes, repetitions and changes in themes. Thus, while listening to such music students can identify musical features such as melody, harmony and variation in tempo. Students' concentration may be sharpened through this process (Hwang, 2009, Richardson, 2000; Gfeller, 1983).
Fourth, listening to western classical music may enhance creativity. Music itself is a creative art and students can experience creative pleasure through the medium of classical music. This creativity is acquired through participation in various activities related to art, regardless of whether the students are composers, artists, or audiences (Kim, 2000b; Reimer, 1989; Hull, 1998). Students thus develop competence of imagination, which may influence creative thinking.
Because of these perceived advantages of listening to classical music, many Korean professionals related to music, such as music therapists and music educators, have been interested in classical music (Cho, 2009; Park, 2007). In order to experience the aesthetic of classical music, knowledge of musical information, such as name of the composer, title of the musical piece, musical structure, and formation, is considered to be essential (Levitin, 2006).
However, in most educational settings western classical music is taught through passive music listening. Passive listening may be less engaging and may fail to sustain students' attention. It is an accepted tenet of music therapy practice that familiar and preferred styles of music are the most effective with clients in clinical or educational settings (Rodocy & Boyle, 1997; Thaut & Davis, 1993; Walworth, 2003). Thus, if students can understand classical music they experience a sense of familiarity when listening to it, which in turn heightens their preference for it, and thereby benefits their education.
Furthermore, the acquisition of this knowledge at the earliest elementary level is crucial to a child's learning. However, elementary school students, especially those in grade one, have a short attention span and educators have been concerned about maintaining students' interest and attention during class. To address this issue, a variety of activities have been recommended and many professionals have tried to adopt education through enjoyable activities as their method of teaching (Park, 2002; Lee, 2007).
Moreover, this enjoyment has certain characteristics similar to play which in turn is considered to be essential in early developmental stages of physical, emotional, and social growth (Axline, 1947; Landreth, 1999). In this study, music listening with plays comprises a variety of musical activities, such as singing a main melody, moving, playing an instrument and composing. It is different from passive listening because after music listening, a variety of musical activities related to the music is implemented.
The purpose of this study was:
- To show that music listening combined with play influences preference, recognition of main melody in classical music and musical creativity.
- To propose a novel music education program of classical music.
In this study, the following hypotheses will be tested.
- Music listening combined with play for grade one students will have an effect on the preference toward classical music.
- Music listening combined with play for grade one students will have an effect on recognition of main melody in classical music.
- Music listening combined with play for grade one students will have an effect on musical creativity.
Methods
Research Design
This study utilized a pre/post test design. The experimental group attended 12 weekly sessions combining music listening with play, while the control group attended 12 weekly passive music listening sessions between March and June. Two therapists and one teacher were involved, one therapist leading the session, and the other therapist, as co therapist, supporting and observing behaviors. Each group received the same pre/posttest measure.
Participants
The participants in this study were 61 elementary grade one students from Kyong-gi Province, Korea, who participated in this study after school. They were recruited as volunteers from the after school program and their parents signed an informed consent. The children were divided into two groups based on their availabilities, with one group being assigned to the experimental condition and the other to the control group. The number of participants in the experimental group was 31 (16 boys, 15 girls) and the number of participants in the control group was 30 (16 boys, 14 girls). The inclusion criteria was that they were all grade one (7-8 years old), that they had not taken music lessons previously, and that none of them had any hearing impairments or any reading problems.
Procedures
Within the design of the study, there were opportunities to listen to 12 western classical music pieces, such as Fúr Elise and Symphony No. 94 in G major "surprise" (see table 1). In order to select 12 musical excerpts that were unfamiliar, the students in both the experimental and the control group were presented with a list of 30 music excerpts. After listening to each for approximately 2 minutes, they were asked whether they knew the music or not. 12 musical excerpts that were unfamiliar to the students were then selected because familiarity with the music was considered to contaminate the results.
A total of 12 sessions (one per week) were implemented at the end of the school day. In order to reduce experimental bias, all sessions were conducted by the same therapist.
An example of the session structure involves the following. First, all participants under the experimental and control condition were taught briefly about composers and their music. Then students in experimental condition were required to become involved in play activities related tot eh musical excerpt. For example, after listening to Vivaldi's "Spring" from the Four Seasons, students were asked to sing the following lyrics; "Spring is coming. Spring is coming, Spring is coming, Birds sing tweet, tweet, the brook is tricking trickling, thunder is rumbling, rumbling." This was considered to be both a singing and a composing experience. Students also played instruments to create different sounds like those made by birds, brooks, thunder, and to simultaneously imagine the these phenomena to be occurring. This was considered to be a playing experience.
Another example is the use of "Fúr Elise" by Beethoven that was re-composed with the title "For Friend". The participants sang the re-composed song and filled in the blank by themselves using positive character traits of a friend, such as "He/She is (tall) or He/She is clever" (See score 1).
On the other hand, students in the control condition participated only in passive listening to the music. A summary of the music and activities conducted is provided below (see table 1). All sessions used recorded music.
| Number | Title of music | Composer | Contents of program |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Für Elise | Ludwig van Beethoven |
|
| 2 | Symphony No. 94 in G major "surprise" | Franz Joseph Haydn |
|
| 3 | Ballet music Swan Lake | Peter, Ilyich Tchaikovsky |
|
| 4 | Spring in Four Season | Antonio Lucio Vivaldi |
|
| 5 | Etude 25-11 | Frédéric François Chopin |
|
| 6 | Choral Symphonie | Ludwig van Beethoven |
|
| 7 | Wedding March | Wihelm Richard Wagner | Role playing as a bride and bridegroom |
| 8 | Symphony No. 5 c-minor | Ludwig van Beethoven | Creating rhythm with non-pitch instrument |
| 9 | Eine Kleine Nacht Musik | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart | Playing musical game |
| 10 | Aquarium, fossils in Carnivals of the animals | Camille Saint-Saëns |
|
| 11 | Symphonie Espagnole in D minor, Op.21 | Victor Antoine Edouard Ralo |
|
| 12 | Symphony No.9 e-minor | Antonin Dvorák |
|
Measurements
The three dependent variables used for the test measured preferences towards music, recognition of the main melody in classical music, and musical creativity. The preference and creativity were measured pre- and post-test, whilst recognition was only measured post-test.
To assess preferences towards music, a five-point Likert scale was used with 1 indicating "least preferred" and 5 indicating "most preferred." After listening, participants were asked to mark their degree of preference on the line.
Recognition of the main melody in a classical music excerpt was rated on the basis of correct answer. This was tested by giving all participants a list of titles and composer. After listening to a musical excerpt they were required to select both the title of the piece and composer from the list. If they answered correctly, both answers together amounted to one point, whereas if they answered only one question correctly (composer or title of music), 0.5 points would be awarded. If they had no answers, they would receive zero points. Based on the results of the pilot study, 12 unfamiliar excerpts had been selected, therefore the greatest sum of points possible was 12.
The last dependent variable was musical creativity. Because the definition of creativity is broad, there are many measurements to assess creativity. The MCSM (Measurements of Creativity in Sound and Music) was selected for use in this study and has been translated to Korean by Kim (2001) and propounded by Wang (1985). This measure was thought to assess creativity properly and pleasantly with children.
The MCSM comprises four activities in order to evaluate three sub-categories of creativity - musical fluency, musical imagination and musical originality (see table 2). Musical fluency was evaluated on the basis of the sum of the responses to activity 1 and activity 3. For example, the teacher stated: "We can make a variety of sound with our bodies. Can you show me a sound with body?" According to the student's response, a score was attributed using a five-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating "no response", and 5 indicating "maximum response." Musical imagination was evaluated on the basis of the sum of the responses to activities 2 and 4. In activities 1 and 3, the participants received one point for musical originality if the rhythms composed by them were original. In activity 2, the researcher explained a special situation and asked the participants if they could express that situation through music, for example, "Can you use instruments to express the sound of the footsteps of a giant?" Scores were again attributed on a scale from 1 to 5 (where 5 implied "very responsive"), depending on student's response.
| Activities | Contents | Rating category |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Create rhythm through movement and using instruments |
Musical fluency, Musical originality |
| 2 | Playing instrument according to the suggested sound, for example, the sound of rain, and wind. |
Musical imagination |
| 3 | Playing instrument according to a suggested rhythm | Musical fluency, Musical originality |
| 4 | Imagine situations or express emotions Using instruments after listening to music. |
Musical imagination |
In the present study, data were analyzed using the SPSS version 15. Independent t- tests were used to determine whether pre to post gains were significant for each group. For reliability, the researcher and the teacher evaluated students' responses and agreement between them was computed. Also a Levene's test for equality of variance was computed.
Results
Three independent t -test were employed to assess the difference in mean score between groups. The results are as follows.
Analysis of Preference Toward Classical Music.
First, Levene's test for equality of variance was computed. The results showed that there was no statistical difference (F = 0.065, p = 0.801). This means that a parametric test is plausible and an independent t-test was used. In this study, a post-test score minus a pre-test score was computed. The independent t-test was used to assess the difference in the mean score of preference for each group since a difference between experimental and control group in pretest may contaminate results. This is one method for handling a difference at pre-test.
The mean preference in the experimental condition changed from 1.29 to 4.13, and the mean for the control condition changed from 1.33 to 2.01. The mean and standard deviation score are presented in table 3. It was inferred that there was significant difference between experimental and control conditions (see table 3, figure 2).
| Group | Mean | SD | 95% confidence interval | t-value | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental (n = 31) |
pre | 1.29 | 0.53 | 0.25-2.33 | 9.31** | 0.000 |
| post | 4.13 | 0.76 | 2.64-5.62 | |||
| Control (n = 30) |
pre | 1.33 | 0.48 | 0.39-2.27 | ||
| post | 2.01 | 0.91 | 0.23-3.79 | |||
| * p p | ||||||
Analysis of Recognition of Main Melody
An independent t-test was used to assess the difference in recognizing the main melody. The mean in the experimental condition changed from 0 to 9.27 and the mean in the control condition changed from 0 to 4.25. The mean and standard deviation scores are presented in table 4. Since unfamiliar music was selected in the pilot study, the mean of the posttest was compared. There was a significant difference in recognition of the main melody between the experimental and control conditions (see table 4, figure 3).
| Group | Mean | SD | 95% confidence interval | t-value | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental (n = 31) |
pre | 0 | 0 | - | 15.26** | 0.000 |
| post | 9.27 | 1.33 | 6.66-11.88 | |||
| Control (n = 30) |
pre | 0 | 0 | - | ||
| post | 4.25 | 1.23 | 1.84-6.66 | |||
| * p p | ||||||
Analysis of Musical Creativity
For reliability, the two observers, the researcher and the teacher, rated the categories of musical creativity together, and a percentage agreement score was derived. The agreement score between the researcher and the teacher was 0.88. Cronbach' α values were 0.89 in musical fluency, 0.90 in musical imagination and 0.88 in musical originality, indicating high reliability.
First, Levene's test for equality of variance was computed. The results showed that there was no statistical difference. This again suggested that a parametric test was plausible. Thus, an independent t-test was used. In this study, a post-test score minus a pre-test score was computed. An independent t-test was used to assess the difference in the mean score of preference for each group.
In this study, musical creativity increased from the pre-test to the post-test in both groups. The mean creativity score of the experimental group increased greatly from 29.45 to 38.52. Further, the mean creativity score for the control group showed only a slight increase from 28.50 to 30.60. The mean and standard deviation of both subcategories have been presented in table 5. The p-values for this test were less than 0.01. Therefore there is a significant difference the means of the two groups.
With regard to the subcategories, the means for musical fluency, musical originality and musical imagination of the experimental group increased more than that of the control group (see table 5, figure 4). Further, there were significant differences in the means for musical fluency, musical imagination, and musical originality of the experimental and control conditions.
| Experimental | Control | t-value | p-value | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | 95% confidence interval | Mean | SD | 95% confidence interval | ||||
| Musical fluency | pre | 5.13 | 0.76 | 3.64 - 6.62 | 5.03 | 0.85 | 3.36 - 6.7 | 5.55** | 0.000 |
| post | 8.03 | 0.87 | 6.32 - 7.74 | 6.43 | 0.77 | 4.92 - 7.94 | |||
| Musical originality | pre | 4.03 | 0.60 | 2.85 - 5.21 | 4.06 | 0.58 | 2.92 – 5.2 | 9.25** | 0.000 |
| post | 6.00 | 0.58 | 4.86 - 7.14 | 4.37 | 0.67 | 3.06 - 5.68 | |||
| Musical imagination | pre | 20.29 | 0.90 | 18.53 - 22.05 | 19.40 | 0.97 | 17.5 - 21.3 | 11.86** | 0.000 |
| post | 24.48 | 1.06 | 22.2 – 26.36 | 19.80 | 0.81 | 18.21 - 21.39 | |||
| Musical creativity | pre | 29.45 | 1.46 | 26.59-32.31 | 28.50 | 1.50 | 25.56 - 31.44 | 12.47** | 0.000 |
| post | 38.52 | 1.81 | 34.97-42.07 | 30.60 | 1.73 | 27.21 - 33.99 | |||
| *p p | |||||||||
Conclusion and Discussion
The present study investigated the effect of music listening combined with play on preference toward classical music, recognition of melodies in classical music, and musical creativity in elementary school students (7-8 years old).
First, music listening combined with play influenced the degree of preference for classical music. That is, students developed greater interest in classical music after engaging in music listening combined with playful activities such as singing a composed song, playing instruments, moving to music, and playing musical games. Many studies have indicated that the development of familiarity with and preferences for music is an influential factor in the achievement of therapeutic goals (Thaut & Davis, 1993; Walworth, 2003).This suggests that if clients are interested in the specific music and musical activities, and participate in sessions actively and enthusiastically, then his/her behavior will be more likely to undergo a positive change.
However, the present study showed that passive music listening also increased preferences for classical music to a certain extent. In this sense, in order to increase familiarity and preference toward music, it is recommended that a variety of musical experience be introduced, even if through passive music listening.
Second, music listening combined with play also influenced the recognition of a main melody in classical music. Some studies have shown that music, to a certain extent, has the ability to positively affect attention and academic competence (Hwang, 2009; Im, 2004). Music, as a commonly understood fact, is an effective medium for memory. Some research shows that both adults and children have demonstrated superior learning and memory using music formats (Wallace, 1994), song lyrics (Kilgour et al., 2000), scientific information (Chazin & Neuschatz, 1990), telephone numbers (Wolfe & Hom, 1993), and names of professional sports players (Rainey & Larsen, 2002). Therefore, music is a useful for memory that is needed in academic fields.
Music has the ability to engage, and it can motivate students to learn almost any subject matter (Eisentein, 1974; Hanser, 1974). Thus, in order to teach classical music, it is favorable to adapt musical activities that use multisensory techniques, such as singing, playing, moving, and composing. This encourages the identification of main melodies, the analysis of the relationship among themes, and the ability to listen to classical music while deriving aesthetic pleasure.
Third, music listening combined with play increased the musical creativity scores of participants in this study. Therefore, being involved in a variety of musical activities may lead to an increase in musical creativity, because students play the instruments imaginatively and express their emotions through song and playing (Kim, 2001; Jeon, 2008; Jung, 2006a). Music is universally recognized as a creative art. Composition, improvisation, and performance works all involve affective and cognitive behaviors of creativity.
The present study indicated that music listening combined with play significantly improved musical creativity skills, specifically musical fluency, musical imagination and musical originality. For example, musical fluency may be increased by playing instruments. Musical imagination may be improved by free and imaginative expression through musical composing and moving. Musical originality may be developed through the making of original rhythm. Of course, musical creativity is not established for a short time and it can be measured using different tools. Thus further studies are needed to generalize of these results.
Music making, labeled as musicing (Elliot, 1995), is a particular form of intentional human action. Elliot states that to perform music is to act thoughtfully and deliberately. Thus, creativity is a critical factor in the process of composing music. The knowledge and expression of emotion and thought is a fundamental skill in the process of composing or musicing. In this sense, listening while participating musically, as in the present study, is a constructive method of increasing creativity and fundamental to making music.
The profession of music therapy is expanding in Korea recently (Park & Hwang, 2008). This means that music therapists are increasing working with various types of clients, not only with people who have disabilities. According with this trend, music therapists also need to be informed about education for children who do not have disabilities. This program introduces a new approach where music therapists are able to use music not for therapy, but also for educational outcomes.
Results of this study should be considered within the context of its limitations. Participants in this study were not randomly assigned to the groups. So in order to generalize these results, a large group of participants is needed for future studies. Additionally, sex, age, and musical experience need to be considered. Also, more objective measurements need to be developed. The researcher and teacher involved in this study knew the participants who were in the experimental and control groups and this may have added a subjective dimension that may contaminate results. Thus, more objective methods need to be considered.
Music education must be enjoyable for students, satisfy their intellects, and develop their musical potential. Thus, combining musical listening with play is not only educationally valuable, providing knowledge and enjoyment, but also a creative program that provides an impetus to musical creativity. Thus it is recommended that this program be adopted as a part of music education in elementary schools where music therapists are working.
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