Aesthetic Experience and Transformation in Music Therapy
A Critical Essay
Introduction
Searching the literature, I was surprised with the small amount of texts that explore the aesthetic dimensions of music therapy practice. Despite the fact that aesthetics has been acknowledged as an important dimension of music therapy in early publications (e.g. Gaston, 1964, 1968; Mueller, J., 1964; Mueller, K., 1964), such explorations have been ignored or restricted for a long period of time. This fact reflects some of the difficulties of considering artistic criteria in a health-promoting discipline and profession. More particularly, the small amount of texts acknowledging the relevance of aesthetic dimensions in music therapy might suggest the belief that aesthetics can interfere with the struggle of music therapy to gain recognition as a legitimate health-care profession and discipline (Aigen, 2007). This was the case especially in USA where music therapy tried to be recognized mainly through quantitative research and positivistic approaches to knowledge. From this perspective, aesthetics have been regarded as something subjective and therefore something with limited if any value, in the context of music therapy as an "objective" science (Aigen, 1995). However, a growing body of music therapists has started to challenge such perspectives and they have brought aesthetics in the forefront of music therapy discourse by adopting mainly qualitative and phenomenological approaches to knowledge.
One of the most recent contributions in this discourse is Aigen’s (2007) article "In Defence of Beauty: A Role for the Aesthetic in Music Therapy Theory." In this article, Aigen (2007, p. 127) asserts that "aesthetic experience involves and models processes of transformation that are necessary parts of successful music therapy." Three basic points that emerge from his premise are: aesthetic experience, transformation and successful music therapy. Taking these points as my point of departure, I develop the present essay in the following parts:
- A brief retrospective review of the philosophical discourse of aesthetics.
- Aesthetic experience and its relevance to music therapy.
- Transformation and its relation to aesthetic experience.
- Successful music therapy: The role of aesthetic experience and transformation.
Throughout this essay, my personal stance is supported by a literature review which draws from the fields of music therapy, drama therapy, and philosophy, as well as from humanistic approaches to psychotherapy. I should clarify that my survey of the literature is not intended to be exhaustive and it focuses on exploring some dimensions related in particular to Aigen’s afore-mentioned premise. I should also mention that my literature review is limited in texts written in the English language and consequently reflects theories and concepts that have been developed essentially in Western cultures and traditions. Therefore, it does not represent a broader range of views that have emerged in other traditions and cultures in the world.
I also want to clarify that despite the fact that my explorations are based mainly on Aigen’s premises, the meanings that I generate and the links that I make with other theories are not necessarily attributed to Aigen’s theory. My intention is not to explain or elaborate Aigen’s understanding of aesthetics, but rather to develop my own personal understanding as this is based on Aigen’s premises. So, both similarities and dissimilarities between Aigen’s view and my own personal view of aesthetic experience and transformation in music therapy may be identified.
Brief Retrospective Review of the Philosophical Discourse of Aesthetics
The root of the word aesthetics derives from the ancient Greek word aisthesis, which refers to the sensory perception. The initial meaning of the word, however, has been expanded and covers a range of contents including both the physical and emotional aspects which are present in immediate experience (Dewey, 1934/2005). This expanded notion of aesthetics has been a major part of the discourse of art and philosophy which explores issues concerning the nature and meaning of art, of beauty, as well as of sensory experience coupled with feeling (Stige 1998). This intrinsic connection of sensory experience with feeling and emotion is denoted also in the corresponding ancient Greek verb aisthanomai which has both the meaning "to perceive" and "to feel."
Aesthetics has been a major philosophical issue since the classical period in ancient Greece (5th and 4th centuries B.C.) that Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – three of the most major Greek philosophers – laid a significant part of the philosophical foundations of Western culture. Plato, in particular, conceptualized music as a synthesis of mathematical and ethical conceptions. Similarly, his view of aesthetics was penetrated by the belief that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts (Paul, 1988). This view was connected to his understanding of pure numbers as having cosmic power and to his belief that musical harmony relates to the harmony of the universe or to the harmony of spheres. For Plato beauty is "a Form, allied to Good, whose instances were objects of love" (Hamilton, 2007, p. 2). So, the notion of beauty is separated from the autonomy and subjectivity of aesthetic experience. According to him, the cosmos is the one definitely beautiful artifact and paradigm of phenomenal beauty, while all other things can be considered beautiful just insofar as they contribute to its beauty. In a similar way, Aristotle argued that the universal elements of beauty are order, symmetry, and definiteness. Both Plato and Aristotle believed that music has a direct effect upon the soul and actions of humankind, and that music was an embodiment of universal principles and truths. However, in order to understand these conceptions of aesthetics and music it is important to keep in mind that aesthetic value in ancient Greece was not separated from ethical, religious, cognitive or practical value. In a similar way, music was interwoven with political and social systems while it was considered to be a present from the Muses, the goddesses of poetic inspiration who sponsored every cultural or intellectual activity. Therefore, music (or mousikē) was used in a broader sense than we use music today. It was understood as reflecting unity of every artistic activity (e.g. poetry, dance) that each Muse represented and was expressed in music (Hamilton, 2007; Scruton, 1997; West, 1992).
Through a very brief retrospective review[1], an evolving interest in the discourse of aesthetics started anew in the eighteenth century. In 1750 Baumgarten (as cited in Stige 1998) focused on the qualities of the artistic object and argued that aesthetics should be able to explain beauty as a product of perfection (see also Frohne-Hagemann, 2001). On the other hand, in 1790 Kant (as cited in Stige, 1998) emphasized the subject’s role and active participation in the creation of all knowledge – a fact that gave an inter-subjective character to aesthetics. More particularly, Kant claimed that the person will never have an objective knowledge of reality as he always makes sense of the world by his perception of the world through his senses and through his pre-existing knowledge and past experiences. Therefore, he emphasized the importance of inter-subjectivity as people communicate on aesthetic judgments (Stige, 2002). It is interesting to mention that a central point in Kant’s view is the idea of "purposiveness without a purpose." Even if this idea initially did not intend to imply that art is functionless, Adorno’s radical view gave it a new direction by implying that autonomous artworks have a social situation, but no direct social function. Therefore, he implied autonomy of art which has as its purpose the creation of something without direct function (Hamilton, 2007).
Almost a century later, Dewey criticized the conception of art as an autonomous institution in the society; a fact that related to the development of capitalism in the nineteenth century. He opposed to the conception of art as a lonely, autonomous thing that does not belong to everyday life, as such a view implied a split between high and low art. In this framework, high art requires high levels of competency in the creator, the performer, as well as the receiver of art, while it is for few people and represents elitist and essentialist values (Stige, 1998). Such a view, however, was in contrast with Dewey’s naturalistic approach to aesthetics.
More particularly, Dewey argued that the split between high and low art is artificial and that aesthetic experience is closely related to everyday experiences. He criticized the split of means and ends in modern societies and he counter-proposed that the main characteristic of aesthetic experience is that means and ends merge. From this point of view, an experience is non-aesthetic when the means and ends are external to each other. In other words, an experience could be characterized as unaesthetic when it is not integrated into meaningful units, and therefore begins and ends in arbitrary places (Dewey, 1934/2005). In these terms, the unity of means with ends is a defining characteristic of aesthetic experience. The goal is the experience itself as it posses and reveals the unity of structure and purpose, the integration of parts.
Based on this perspective, Dewey (1934/2005) refers to two kinds of means: one kind is external to that which is accomplished, while the other kind remains immanent to the consequences produced. The first kind of means implies that the ends are cessations of what went before, as the means cease to act when the end is reached. On the other hand, the second kind of means implies that the ends are fulfillments of what went before, as the means belong intrinsically to their end. This second kind of means that is its own end, or is -in other words- incorporated in the outcome, is considered a medium and is an integral part of each aesthetic experience. The different nature of these two kinds of means can be better understood through the following example that Dewey (1934/2005, p. 205) gives: Sometimes we travel in order to get somewhere else and we would gladly avoid the trip if that was possible. Some other times, however, we travel for the delight of moving about and seeing what we see. In the first case the trip is just a means that is not incorporated in the end. In the second case, however, the trip is a medium as it is integral part of the end; our goal is the trip.
Aesthetic Experience and Its Relevance to Music Therapy
Aigen’s conception of aesthetic experience in music therapy is in alignment with Dewey’s philosophy. From this perspective, Aigen (2007, p. 124) considers music as "an experiential medium whose aesthetic qualities are an essential aspect of its clinical value." Music in music therapy is not used merely as a means toward an end which could be approached through alternate paths. Music is a medium which is the focus of the therapeutic relationship and is not separated from its clinical aims (Aigen, 1995).
In this context, Aigen supports that:
Music is inarguably an artistic medium that is defined by the elements of it that give rise to aesthetic experience. Unless the elements that define music as music are central parts of clinical applications it is difficult if not impossible to understand why the discipline of music therapy exists as it does and why it enjoys the dedication of the clients whole lives it was created to enhance. (Aigen, 2008, p. 17)
Aesthetic experience answers the quest for meaning and purpose in life that is common among many music therapy clients, as it provides a connection between the individual and the reality around him (Aigen, 2007). From this perspective, music therapy focuses on the process rather than the product. Music in music therapy is not a means, but a medium for interpersonal, emotional and aesthetic experiences (Aigen, 1995). This premise denotes a view of music as a process, as a moment-to-moment experience which provides the client opportunities to discover, experience, and transform various aspects of his self and of his self in relationship with the environment and other people around him.
Some ideas that I find illustrative to Aigen’s view are those of Clive Robbins, who claims that therapy processes are intrinsically artistic processes by stating that "the power of music in therapy stems from the reality that music is an art" (Robbins, 1993, p. 16). Bruscia also talks about music as artistic process. He states, "aesthetic values and beauty are pursued and achieved while improvising, composing, re-creating, or listening to music, in the creative process itself" (Bruscia, 1998, p. 149).
I argue that the significance of this concept of aesthetics in music therapy applies even when the clinical aims are non-musical (e.g. personal growth or self-actualization). This happens as personal change takes place through the person’s active engagement with the music. In this framework, the merging of means and ends in the aesthetic experience, as Aigen (1995, 2007) describes, leads to the development of a general sense of living a life with meaning and purpose. Consequently, this merging enhances greater personality integration and a sense of unity to the person. This unity and wholeness to our experience is the main quality that describes the aesthetic experience both in music therapy and in everyday life. This close interweaving of aesthetic experience with personal and practical concerns is a fundamental notion that we could verify by understanding how the person’s growth and self-actualization takes place through his active engagement with music (as we will discuss in more detail in the next part of this essay). This connection of aesthetics with personal and practical dimensions is one main rationale for its significance in the discourse of music therapy (Aigen, 2007) and refutes Smeijsters (2008) critique that music-centered music therapists ignore personal aspects.
Four other influential views of aesthetic experience in music therapy are those of Salas (1990), Kenny (1982, 1989, 2006), Lee (2003) and Stige (1998, 2002, 2008). Through a short overview, Salas (1990) supports that aesthetic experience is a manifestation and affirmation of the unity and patterns of existence itself, while it reflects the person’s discovery of meaning in life and his connection to the world. From this point of view, she sees "growth and healing [...] as closely related to an increased awareness of beauty and the capacity to create it" (Salas, 1990, p. 1).
In a similar way, Kenny (1982, 2006) describes aesthetics as an intrinsic human quality, as the notion of aesthetics is connected with the human’s need for beauty and quest for meaning in the world. "As one moves toward beauty", according to Kenny (1989, p. 77), "one moves toward wholeness, or the fullest potential of what one can be in the world." However, the use of the word beauty and its definition is controversial, especially in the framework of music and other form of art therapies. For this reason, I would like to comment on it briefly in the paragraph below.
As Aigen (2007) notes, there are two primary understandings of beauty. In one way, beauty has the same meaning with aesthetic value which is present in every aesthetic experience. According to the second understanding however, beauty relates to a view which implies "a fairly orthodox style or genre, pleasure unmixed with pain and the absence of bizarre or discordant elements" (Stolnitz, 1967, p. 266, as cited in Aigen, 2007, p. 114). The clinical relevance of beauty to music therapy is in alignment with its first understanding. More particularly, my personal understanding of beauty in this context is in accordance with Ansdell (1995: 216) who writes that "beauty is a quality which can happen between people, not just a quality of a musical object". Similarly, Small (1998, p. 219) suggests that "the sensation of beauty is not an end itself but a sign that the relationship is occurring." From this viewpoint, beauty (and aesthetics) refers to a relationship and a process of creating and understanding a shared meaning and value in the world. However, I support that the belief of aesthetic judgments on beauty as having universal validity, as Paul (1988) argues, needs closer and careful examination.
A third view of aesthetics in music therapy is this of Lee (2003) who supports the vital role of aesthetic experience in clinical processes by understanding both the musical experience and the therapeutic relationship as aesthetic in their nature. More particularly, in his book The Architecture of Aesthetic Music Therapy Lee (2003) develops his theory of Aesthetic Music Therapy (AeMT). He considers music therapy from a musicological and compositional perspective, as he proposes that new ways of exploring clinical practice can emerge when theories of music inform theories of therapy. Based on a music-centered approach to music therapy, Lee considers music as the core of the therapy and he argues that "the actualization of the client’s aesthetic individuality through music is at the center of AeMT" (Lee, 2003, p. 22). However, Lee’s (2003, p. 69) statement that "balancing the aesthetic and clinical features of improvisation is no easy task" implies a separation or externality between aesthetic and clinical thought in music therapy, which I personally find incorrect. I find that such a separation or externality tends towards an understanding of music as a means, rather than a medium in music therapy (as discussed above).
Stige (1998, 2002, 2008) on the other hand, criticizes the connection of aesthetics with the notions of wholeness and unity; a connection that is explicit in the afore-mentioned views of Aigen (1995, 2007, 2008), Salas (1990) and Kenny (1982, 1989, 2006). Coming from a culture-centered approach to music therapy, he considers these notions a set of values that are not shared by everyone and possibly repress other values. He argues that it is problematic to develop general criteria for distinction between aesthetic and unaesthetic experiences based on these notions of unity, completion or wholeness to our experience, as what is unity, completion or wholeness for one individual, is not necessarily for another person as well (Stige (2002). Stige therefore counter-proposes the acknowledgement of different "local" aesthetics and examines music therapy as a set of aesthetic practices. In other words, he refutes the quest for universal aesthetic qualities and focuses on the communication processes on values and value, related to specific contexts (Stige, 1998, 2008).
According to my understanding however, Aigen’s premises do not actually contradict with those of Stige. When interviewed by Stige, Aigen (2001, p. 90) suggested that music is "transpersonal with objective qualities," while he claimed clearly that "objectivity does not imply universality" in music (Aigen, 2001, p. 92). Combining this statement with his concept of music as a medium which is not separated by its ends (e.g. experience of unity and wholeness), I support Aigen when he refers to unity and wholeness not in a prescriptive way as a universal set of values. On the other hand, he refers to them as experiences which have objective qualities and which, at the same time, take place on an individual level through intra- and inter-personal processes of negotiating values, as Stige suggests. However, I suggest here that the development of a clear working definition of universality and objectivity could help us to deepen our understanding of aesthetics on the basis of shared meanings and it could possibly help us to develop an integrative model of aesthetics in music therapy.
Having the above context in mind, I will try to approach the question of "why aesthetic experience involves and models processes of transformation." This question brings us in the second points of Aigen’s (2007) initial premise.
Transformation and Its Relation to Aesthetic Experience
Transformation (as well as the equivalent concept in Greek, metamorphosis) means a change in form during development. It is a commonly used concept in the wider field of therapy and it usually describes processes of growth, self-actualization or re-formation of the person, while sometimes it is used alternatively with these words. Irrespective of how one may call it though, Rogers (1995, p. 35) claims that transformation is "the mainspring of life, and [...] the tendency upon which all psychotherapy depends."
In my exploration of the role of transformation in therapy, Porter’s (2003) viewpoint -as a drama therapist- appealed to me. She conceptualizes transformation as an intermediate stage between death and rebirth (in a broader sense); as a creative process, where each moment is new and is a process of becoming[2]. In order to describe this intermediate, transformative stage between death and rebirth, Porter (2003, p. 101) uses the notion of impasse that she defines as "any time in treatment when clients struggle to move to another level of development and / or are on the brink of that transition". From this perspective, impasse could be described as a bardo state, where bardo (in Tibetan) means a transition between one situation and the beginning of another.
Porter (2003) connects the impasse in therapy with the occurrence of death on a metaphoric level. This process in therapy can be seen as the same process in nature where one being dies and then re-emerges. This transformative process in therapy denotes a period of tension and suspension where the old aspects of the self deconstruct so that new dimensions and possibilities of the person can arise. The constant transformations that take place through improvisations encourage psychological growth, as the nature of improvisation challenges rigidity and encourages spontaneity. This transformative dynamic of improvisations represents a constant process of death/tension and re-birth/resolution. This transformative tension is a precursor of growth.
However, the process of death and rebirth, which is essential for personal change, is challenging and the person should allow space for it and be able to tolerate it. As Viktor Frankel said, "what is to give light must endure burning" (as cited in Porter 2003, p. 105). Such a view of the role of transformation reveals potential spiritual aspects, as all the spiritual traditions believe in the transformative nature of death. This connection of transformation and spirituality in music therapy becomes evident from Lipe’s article (2002) where she does a review of fifty-two articles from 1973 to 2000 relating to the topic of music, spirituality and health.
Based on Porter’s conceptualizations, I relate transformation with what Rogers (1995) described as the process of "becoming a person." In this process the individual becomes gradually more open and aware of his experience incorporating his own feelings and attitudes, as well as the reality around him. This openness of awareness is a basic element that usually characterizes the person who emerges from therapy.
Transformation describes the process of reorganization of the individual "at both the conscious and deeper levels of his personality in such a manner as to cope with life more constructively" (Rogers, 1995, p. 36). Therefore, transformation refers to a dynamic conception of the therapeutic process where the therapeutic outcome does not refer to a static state of being of the individual, but to a dynamic process which unfolds within the therapy. The individual’s involvement in this process is both the vehicle and the goal of the therapy (Aigen, 1995). In this way, the individual who strives to discover himself becomes "more content to be a process rather than a product" and he tends to accept that he is not "a fixed entity, but a process of becoming" (Rogers, 1995, p. 122).
From this perspective, I agree with Aigen (2007) that aesthetic experience does involve and model processes of transformation. Aesthetic experience is transformative in its very nature, as both aesthetic experience and transformation lie in a process of creating or participating in something where means and ends do not exist as independent entities; a process which activates processes of self-growth and self-actualization in the person. Aigen (1991), more particularly, argues that the central function of music is personal transformation. This transformation facilitates a healthy functioning of the person that is characterized by the "ability to maintain a flexible response to the ever changing demands of one’s own internal development, as well as to those of the external society" (Aigen, 1991, p. 90). Therefore, aesthetic experience involves the person’s "journey towards wholeness" (Bruscia, 1998, p. 42). This journey encompasses the elements of exploration, discovery, change and growth that are considered – both from Porter (2003) and Aigen (2007) – as basic characteristics of transformation.
In this context, Aigen suggests that:
... the clinical aesthetic context provided by the music therapist takes the emotional energy and facilitates its transformation into energy used in the service of the client’s growth, self-expression, self-awareness, and ability to commune with others. (Aigen, 2007, p. 125)
It is interesting to note that a similar idea of transformation is also reflected in Dewey (1934/2005) who claims that the change that physical materials (i.e. sounds or colors) undergo, relates to a similar transformation that takes place on the side of "inner" materials, memories and emotions of the person. More particularly, he states:
... between conception and bringing to birth there lies a long period of gestation. During this period the inner material of emotion and idea is as much transformed through acting and being acted upon by objective material [in music therapy this material is music] as the latter undergoes modification when it becomes a medium of expression. It is precisely this transformation that changes the character of the original emotion, altering its quality so that it becomes distinctively aesthetic in nature (Dewey, 1934/2005, pp. 78-79, italics added).
According to my understanding, this relationship between aesthetic experience and transformation is underpinned by their common tension-resolution dynamic. More specifically, aesthetic experience involves processes of transformation of the "old self" which resolve into a "new self." The resolution of the tension that lies between the "old self" and the "new self" is an essential ingredient of music therapy processes (Robbins & Robbins, 1991). In this way, the transformative dynamic in music therapy which represents a constant process of death/tension and re-birth/resolution creates a corresponding aesthetic dynamic – as I would call it – and vice versa. This tension-resolution dynamic is a basic characteristic of the personality’s development towards a higher level of integration (Aigen 1995, 2005).
The next major question which arises and leads to the third point of Aigen’s (2007) premise is "why processes of transformation are necessary parts of successful music therapy."
Successful Music Therapy: The Role of Aesthetic Experience and Transformation
In my endeavor to understand why transformation is an essential part of successful music therapy, I faced the challenge of defining firstly what makes music therapy "successful." According to Bruscia (1998), if the desired therapeutic results have not been achieved, therapy has not been successful. Conversely, music therapy is successful when it achieves the therapeutic results to which it aims. But if we try to define the therapeutic aims, we return to the root quest of actually defining music therapy.
In the appendix of his book Defining Music Therapy, Bruscia (1998) quotes sixty-one different definitions of music therapy. Despite the great diversity of these definitions, it is noteworthy that most of them refer to the improvement of the client’s physiological, psychological and / or mental health. Additionally, the enhancement of the potential for growth, self-actualization or well-being of the individual emerges (based on the afore-mentioned definitions) as a commonly used notion concerning the therapeutic aims. So, I propose that the notions of holistic health, growth and self-actualization can also function as a general framework for defining the therapeutic aims and, through their fulfillment, the effectiveness or success of music therapy.
Under this light, processes of transformation emerge – by definition(s) – as necessary parts of successful music therapy. Transformation, as I explained previously, describes processes of growth and self-actualization which are main therapeutic aims. Therefore, transformation – and consequently aesthetic experience – could be established as a vital part of a successful music therapy.
This inextricable relationship of aesthetic experience, transformation and therapy is central in the framework of music-centered music therapy, as the aesthetic experience in music is the means and the goal of therapy itself (Aigen, 1995). The transformation of the person, according to Nordoff and Robbins (2007), lies in the processes of self-discovery and results in a new way of connecting with the world. The experience of this self-discovery process is central to the therapeutic relationship and confirms aesthetic factors as an essential part of music therapy. As Aigen aptly describes in two of his texts, "the experiencing is the Nordoff-Robbins therapy [...] it is the actual living through in the moment that changes you" (Aigen, 2001, p. 99). "Experience in this aesthetic realm is not peripheral to the therapy but is the therapy" (Aigen, 1995, p. 241).
Similarly, Bruscia supports that music therapy (in general) is an experiential form of therapy where client and therapist develop their relationship within the music experiences. This means that music therapy "relies upon experience as both the agent and outcome of therapy" and therefore the "client accesses, works through, and resolves the various therapeutic issues directly through the medium" (Bruscia, 1998, p. 107). In other words, the client is transformed through music experience which is at the same time the primary aim, process and outcome of therapy. Therefore, transformation is viewed as an essential part of aesthetic musical experience and includes both musical and personal aspects (Aigen, 2007). The transformation of musical elements (through aesthetic procedures like development, variation or change of melodic shapes, rhythm, dynamics and / or harmony) that happens between client and therapist in clinical improvisation is directly linked with, and becomes, the transformation of the person’s self (through procedures of aesthetic dynamic that I described above). This merging of musical and personal aspects is accomplished as the person’s emotional energy (personal aspect) is transformed into creative expression (musical aspect) through his engagement in music.
Some Final Words
Based on this short exploration of aesthetic experience in the discourse of music therapy, I agree with Aigen’s (2007, p. 127) initial premise that "aesthetic experience involves and models processes of transformation that are necessary parts of successful music therapy." However, I believe that we need to continue our endeavors to understand in greater depth the multi-dimensional role of aesthetic experience in music therapy. In this regard, I believe that we need to be informed by current musical, biological, and psychological perspectives, but always base our theories of aesthetics primarily on our experiences and empirical knowledge as music therapy practitioners and researchers. Such an approach will help us to deepen our understanding of how human beings relate to each other and grow as individuals through their aesthetic experiences in music therapy. I believe that the acknowledgement and further exploration of aesthetic dimensions in music therapy will enhance our understanding of the transformative processes within the therapy and will generally open up new horizons in our practice and research.
Notes
[1] This retrospective review of the discourse of aesthetics is not exhausted because of the limited length of this essay. Therefore, I choose to refer mainly to Baumgarten, Kant, and Dewey as their ideas represent some basic ways of thought in aesthetics which have been appeared in the discourse of music therapy as well (Aigen, 1995, 2005, 2007; Frohne-Hagemann, 2001; Stige 1998, 2002).
[2] For a discussion of death and rebirth experiences in music and music therapy, see Scheiby (1995). For a discussion of myths of death and rebirth and their relevance in music therapy, see Kenny (1982).
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